History of the designs and Applications

Ceramics is among one of the industrial materials whose usage can be dated back to thousands of years ago. This industry began as soon as humanity realized that he could create different objects by simply mixing clay and water and afterward applying some heat. The oldest artifact from ceramic was dated to have existed back to the late Paleolithic period, that is, 2800BCE (Before Common Era). The object was the statuette of Venus of Dolni Vestonice, a woman from Brno, a prehistoric settlement in the Czech Republic. Additionally, some other figures made of clay were found within this region by the kiln that had a hoes-shoe shape. These artifacts belonged to animals that existed within the Ice Age[1]

After several years a clay product was found in China. It was pottery that was dated 18000-17000BCE.  Making pottery using clay spread to Japan and later to the Far East Region of Russia where archeologist unveiled a ceramic artifact that dated back to 14000BCE.

However, the usage of ceramic products increased in the Neolithic period as humans became more proactive in crop and animal farming. From the beginning of 9,000BCE, people began utilizing clay to develop a variety of objects to assist them in their day-to-day activities. Some of these uses include storage facilities for food and water, bricks and tiles, statuettes among others. The importance of ceramics became known not only in Asia but also in the Middle East and even Europe. The production during the early years involved the use of rudimentary kiln that was dug on the earth or by merely exposing the product to sunlight.

Ceramic fabrication underwent a massive breakthrough in 3500BCE when the wheel was innovated. The wheel forming techniques paved the way for people to make ceramic products that had radial symmetry. Additionally, the production techniques of pottery improved, mainly its decoration[2]. Apart from the elaborate paintings, the pots were made better by applying oxidation and reduction in the heating process. For instance, among the epitome of evolution include the Greek Attic vases made in the 5^th and the 6^th century. Pottery in ancient Greek was essential as each of them held different stories behind their growth and civilization; additionally, they were the symbol of beauty and art[3]. Below are some examples.

(Proto-Geometric amphora found in Athens, in the early 10th century BC; Kerameikos Museum, Athens. Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich)[4]

(Proto-Corinthian aryballos with the mouth in the form of a lion’s head, c. 650 BC; in the British Museum)[5]

 

 

The Middle East and Europe used ceramic to manufactured mainly pottery up to the 16^th century CE- Common Era. However, another product from ceramics called porcelain came to exist courtesy of the Chinese. In the Mid- Ages, Porcelain usage spread through Islamic nations thanks to the existence of the Silk Road. It later reached Europe following Marco Polo’s traveling expeditions[6].

Over the years the advancement in ceramic industry increased. The products importance became apparent to almost all 9over the world. Following the incredible properties of ceramics, people began using it to create even more diversified products, such as electrical insulators. Features such as high melting point, high chemical resistance, and low electrical and thermal conductivity become very important during the age of technical ceramics. Additional properties include nonmagnetic, oxidant resistant and brittle among others.

Ceramic has contributed to technological advancement in a variety of field including optoelectrical, medical, electronic, automotive, energy, space exploration, and aerospace. Ceramics are now tailored to attain a specific function based on its properties and various process methods.

 

Type of Ceramics

Ceramics can be defined as a collection of solids that are neither organic nor metallic and produced by putting them under high temperature. The high-temperature results in materials which are resistant to heat. The composition of ordinary ceramics include carbides, nitrides, and oxides. Other useful compounds are borides, silicides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides[7].

There is two division of ceramics that is, traditional and advanced ceramics. Traditional ceramics combine the use of unrefined and refined clays together with powdered materials that are non-plastic. Traditional ceramics usually are characterized as having more than 20% clay content. Products of traditional ceramics include pottery, earthenware, stoneware, Chinaware, Whiteware and Porcelain and technical ceramics which functions as electrical insulators among other applications.

Advanced ceramics, on the other hand, composes of highly refined synthetic or natural materials. These type of ceramics are categorized based on their applications. Its application range from thermal, chemical, electrical, biological, mechanical and even nuclear. An example of advanced ceramic products is displayed below. The sink is fused with carbon and silicon forming silicon carbide powder[8].

Picture by Warren Gretz courtesy of US Department of Energy/National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (picture id 6307388)[9].

The main product used to manufacture ceramics is clay. One can use mixed different clays that contain felspar and quartz for modification or use one clay type. There are two types of clays used in the manufacture of ceramic, and they include ball and kaolin clay.

Manufacturing Processes

The steps involved during the manufacture of ceramic products are:

Acquiring raw materials

The first step is to collect the necessary raw materials to be used and transporting them to the manufacturing plant. The materials can range from unrefined clay to pure powders that are synthesis chemically. The naturally occurring elements can be sand, silica, quartz, silicates, aluminosilicates, and flint. After this step, manufacturers go to the next phase[10].

Beneficiation

Beneficiation is defined as the process of removing unwanted materials from a specific product to improve its quality both physically and chemically. The process is conducted on the natural raw material to eliminate any waste leaving the essential components. The process is divided into stages including communication which involves grinding, crushing milling process to minimize the size of particles. Afterward, the particles undergo purification by using distilled water to remove impurities that and soluble in water, and an organic solvent for those that are insoluble in water. The resultant materials are then separated based on their sizes through the process of sizing and classification. The next step is calcining which aim at removing unwanted gases by heating the raw material at a temperature below its melting point; also, the material transforms into the required composition. The next step is liquid dispersion help in turning the raw material into slurry so as mix easily as well as reduce agglomeration of particles. Lastly, the raw materials undergo granulation which involves mixing of powdered ceramic with a binding solution to enable easy handling, flow, compaction, and packaging.

Mixing

This process is essential in acquiring material that is physically and chemically homogenous ahead of the forming stage. Ceramic materials are customarily mixed using pug mills with the help of different processing aids. Some of the subsidies used in processing slurry include deflocullants, antifoaming agents, surfactants and liquids.

Forming

Forming is the stage of formation; that is, it is the point that generates specific shapes and sizes. Forming is achieved by consolidating and molding either slurries, plastic bodies, dry powder or pastes into the required shape. Each ceramic material undergoes a different process to attain the shape and size needed. An adhesive is applied on a substrate in the form of a thick paste, and its purpose is to decorate tableware, form capacitors and dielectric layers for microelectronics. Plastic forming, on the other hand, undergo jiggering, powder injection or extrusion molding process[11]. Each of these methods designs the material to function differently. For instance, extrusion produces structural and refractory products; jiggering produces whiteware ceramics, e.g., electrical porcelain, and cookware. The forming process of slurry involves gel casting, tape casting or slip casting. Gelcasting produces products with complex shapes, e.g., turbine rotors. Meanwhile, slip casting manufacture sanitarywares, porous thermal insulation, figurines, and fin china among others. Tap casting produces thin ceramic tapes or sheets used in dielectric insulator and capacitors.

Green machining

The next step in manufacturing ceramics is called green machining. This process uses surface grinding for smoothing ceramic products as well as cutting the shape and create cavities through punching and blanking processes. Additionally, multilayered ceramics are laminated.

Drying

The ceramic products are then subjected to heat for drying purposes. The process of drying is usually done very carefully by reducing the duration for drying as well as making sure that the product does not shrink, warp or distort in any way that may interfere with its shape. Therefore, it uses the convention method which entails circulating hot air around the product.

Thermal Processing

Thermal processing is the process of subjecting the ceramic product to a controlled temperature that is below that of firing. The purpose of the heat treatment is to dry the product further, removes impurities and residual additives as well as removing water that exists as residue, crystallized or bound [12].

Glazing

Glazing is a form of adding a coating to ceramic products that are dry. An oxide is the primary constituent of glazes.  There are two types of glazes, and they include fruit and raw enamels. Raw glazes are generally molted compounds or minerals containing oxides that are used to function as solvents, for example, felspar, carbonates, zircon, and quartz. Frit, on the other hand, is made up of pre-reacted glass.

Firing/Sintering

The process of firing help to consolidate ceramics into a body that is dense and cohesive having fine and similar grains. Different type of ceramics fire differently. For instance, products with fine particles experience a quick firing under low temperature. Dense particles, on the other hand, undergo rapid firing resulting in a thick product having less shrinkage. Ceramics of irregular shapes also fires quickly. Other factors affecting product firing include the diffusion coefficient, strength of the bond, surface energy, and fluid viscosity[13].

Final phase.

Finally, the ceramics undergo further processing to boost its properties or become more tolerant. The product is subjected to processes such as chemical polishing, abrasive grinding, electrical discharge or even laser machining. Also, the products are covered with surface coats to improve strength and impermeability and for decorating purpose.

Conclusion

As discussed above, ceramic products have come a long way over many years. The production techniques seemed to have evolved into better and sophisticated methods that ensure an even stronger and much useful end product. Ceramic will continue being an essential part of humanity as it can be used in almost all fields. The potential of ceramics has continued to be explored from every angle, and evidently, it proves to be more useful every day.

Bibliography

“Brief History of Ceramics and Glass.” The American Ceramic Society. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass.

 

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Greek Pottery.” Encyclopædia Britannica. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery.

 

“Ceramics – Their Properties, Manufacture, and Everyday Use.” Explain That Stuff. June 07, 2018. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/ceramics.html.

 

Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

 

 

Thesis Statement

Ceramic is an industrial material that has played a fundamental role in our society since ancient times. Its usage has progressed over the years into more refined products which are used in diversified applications. This paper discusses the journey of ceramics production over thousands of years and the evolution of their production process. Ceramics products are depicted to have had different cultural, social and even economic significance to humankind. As the manufacturing process improves, the products became even more useful.

 

Introduction.

Ceramic is one of the most important industrial raw material in the world. The natural raw material is clay. The fact that it is found almost on every part of the world, clay usefulness was one of man’s most significant discovery. This paper explores the evolution of the ceramic product from merely being a container for storing food and water to becoming diversified and useful in almost all works of life be it biological, chemical or even physical. Additionally, this paper sheds light on its manufacturing process and applications in current times.

Outline

1 Introduction

2. History of design and Early Applications
3. Types of Ceramics
4. Manufacturing process
5. Conclusion

 

Annotated Bibliography

“Brief History of Ceramics and Glass.” The American Ceramic Society. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass.

The article describes the evolution of the ceramics industry. It shows how the use of ceramics spread from Asia to the rest of the world.

 

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Greek Pottery.” Encyclopædia Britannica. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery.

This article aims to help in providing more details concerning pottery among the ancient Greeks. It assists in giving pictorial evidence of pottery in early ages.

“Ceramics – Their Properties, Manufacture, and Everyday Use.” Explain That Stuff. June 07, 2018. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/ceramics.html.

This article shows how the production of ceramics basing on different properties is applied and examples of such products.

 

Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

This paper describes the steps involved in the manufacturing of ceramics up until its final stage. Additionally, it talks about the different forms of ceramics.

 

[1]   “Brief History of Ceramics and Glass,” The American Ceramic Society, 1, accessed March 17, 2019, https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass.

 

[2] ion.  “Brief History of Ceramics and Glass,” The American Ceramic Society, 1, accessed March 17, 2019, https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass.

 

[3] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Greek Pottery.” Encyclopædia Britannica. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery.

[4] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Greek Pottery.” Encyclopædia Britannica. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery.

 

[5] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Greek Pottery.” Encyclopædia Britannica. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery.

 

[6] “Brief History of Ceramics and Glass.” The American Ceramic Society. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass.

 

[7]. Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

 

 

[8] “Ceramics – Their Properties, Manufacture, and Everyday Use.” Explain That Stuff. June 07, 2018. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/ceramics.html.

 

[9] “Ceramics – Their Properties, Manufacture, and Everyday Uses.” Explain That Stuff. June 07, 2018. Accessed March 17, 2019. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/ceramics.html.

 

[10] Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

 

[11] Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

 

[12] Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste chemically.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.

 

[13] Haun, Michael J. “Energy Saving Method of Manufacturing Ceramic Products from Fiber Glass Waste.” 2005. doi:10.2172/850486.