Martinez, Lisa M. “Dreams Deferred The Impact of Legal Reforms on Undocumented Latino Youth.” American behavioral scientist 58.14 (2014): 1873-1890.

This article is looking to review how the legal reforms affect the Latino youth with the Colorado shifting of political landscape. In the year 2012, the enactment of the deferred action for childhood arrivals (DACA) occurred giving the undocumented youth a chance to continue living and working in the U.S. for two years. In line with the directive, the Governor of Colorado granted immigrants students condensed tuition fees in the open colleges in 2013. This article looks to explain how the legal reforms affect the youth regarding access to education and employment. The effects of legal reforms influence the assimilation, mobility and the integration of the Latino immigrants especially the youth. Most of the immigrant’s youth applied for the deferred action program. Most of the applicants have been living in the United States for more than ten years. A considerable percentage of them are childhood arrivals.  With the political changes in the United States, initiatives such as the deferred action may not last for long.

The topic of immigration reforms and the effects on the youth has been widely discussed. Different states are taking different measures to curb the issue of immigration and support the undocumented youth. It is notable that the childhood arrivals know no other home except the United States and when faced with deportation, the assimilation process interfered with thus affecting their social life. For those immigrating today, there are more challenges as opposed to those who immigrated in the 19th century. Changes such as industrialization, service based economy and the concentration of the immigrants in poverty areas where opportunities are less are just but an iceberg. The twenty-first-century immigrants just like their earlier counterparts experience an economic and social uplift depending on the length of their stay in the U.S. and education level.  However, the fact that the Latino immigrants have better access to education in the United States does not suggest that they are better than their parents regarding economic outcome (Martinez 4). It is not clear whether ones immigration status can be raised or reduced based on education and structural dynamics given that little research is available to show other factors beyond education and structural dynamics affects the mobility of the youth. Further research is significant in determining whether the relationship between mobility and education is strong for today immigrants as it was for their previous generation with economic and structural changes.

The authors use data from another study to analyze the effects of legal reforms on the undocumented youths. Data used was from a larger study looking to determine pathways to mobility among the Latino youth and undocumented youth aged 16 to 25 years. However, the authors concentrated on the 18 respondents who were childhood arrivals. Thirteen of the respondents were female while five were male (Martinez 5). Though most of them were in college or working, two of the respondents had dropped out of school. The findings were that the realization of being an immigrant is difficult. All the respondents were conscious at an early age that they were immigrants, but the implications of such a status hit them when they joined high school. With the inability to apply for college, most of these immigrants lose hope and the assimilation process is affected. Most of the respondents never shared their status with parents or friends but thought much about how the status affects their day-to-day life. However, with the passage of DACA, there seems to be some hope, but the political landscapes can change anytime. With time, more studies are in order to determine the long-term effects of a program such as DACA to the undocumented youths and their social status.

Brand, Jennie E., and Yu Xie. “Who benefits most from college? Evidence for negative selection in heterogeneous economic returns to higher education.” American Sociological Review 75.2 (2010): 273-302.

The topic under study in this article is the difference in college returns among the United States population. Commonly, scholars assume that people with a high likelihood of going to college benefit mainly from it. Not only in the U.S. but also all over the world, this is however not the case. The purpose of this study is to show how economic returns vary among those who have attained a college education. One of the most significant features of the modern society is the development of education.  The division between the more and less educated has grown and has become a determinant of the well-being and lifestyle. The United States Bureau report of 2007 revealed that a college graduate earns $55, 0000 on average as compared to $30,000 for high school graduates (Brand and Yu 273). The cost-effective and non-economic factors affecting attendance of college indicate that the least likely individuals to go to college are the ones who benefit most from a college education. A major research question is the effects of college education on earnings.

Individuals are rational and make decisions based on cost-benefit analyses. In this regard, a college graduate expects to reap more from the education than a high school graduate does. People choose whether to pursue higher education if they presume it will be beneficial. Social scholars are more interested in the individual and family attributes associated with superior education and the consequences of advanced education on social and financial outcomes. The literature in sociology treats the above issues differently. It assumes factors such as cultural norms and culture affects higher education. Thus, the influences of a college education can vary with the social background. For the higher placed in society, a college education is an expected outcome and less linked to economic prosperity. However, for the less advantaged, a college education is the way to prosperity. The study considers the variation in returns based on superior education in the course of life. The authors’ uses a three-step methodology in this study (Brand and Yu 274). First, the authors assume that controlling a rich set of covariates does not result to more confounders amid people who attend and do not attend college. The second step is to analyze the effects of finishing college on financial earnings, and the third step is to revisit the first step in conducting an auxiliary analysis.

Among the major findings of the study is that among men, college education achievement yields a high momentous effect. This is reliable with the capital model. Increased demand for education as a requirement in the job market is the cause of the difference in earnings. While the educated are on high demand attracting high earnings, the demand for less educated individuals is low attracting low earnings. However, the degree of difference is huge in individuals with a low tendency to accomplish college education. This suggests that the reason why individuals with a less partiality to complete college education have larger financial returns is their societal place, which is guided by the substantial shortcoming. In the nonexistence of optimal education, the low proclivity individuals have inadequate cultural, human and natural resources translating to limited prospects in the labor market. However, individuals from an advantaged background can still depend on the excellent resources in the absence of education. The use of the propensity score as used is this study is limited by the inability assumption. It overlooks heterogeneity due to the variables that are not observable.

Rest, James, and Darcia Narvaez. “The college experience and moral development.” Handbook of moral behavior and development 2 (2014): 229-245.

The article looks to evaluate the effects of college experience on moral development. The follow-up of individuals who attended or did not attend college, cross-sectional analysis of students at various education levels and the degree of change based on college association reveals there is a college effect in moral development. Moral development is considerably an important outcome of liberal education. In the society today, educators are advocating for a significant outcome of moral development from higher education. A good example is the writing by Derek Bok who said that the American higher education concern for moral character is strong as the concern for intellectual development. The research question is to determine whether the college has some effect on moral development.

A college effect is the benefits and challenges of attending college. However, demonstrating the benefits of college is very hard in that it is hard to use the known research designs in collecting data that would reveal that college caused some effect. The use of control and experimental groups cannot work since no one controls individual’s decision of going to college. Going to college is a personal decision made based on personal values and interests though affected by social norms and other social (Rest, James, and Darcia Narvaez 232 ). The less compelling research designs come into play in such a case. There are three major ways to set up a study to determine the college effect. One of the ways is to set the seniors and the freshmen on some form of measure and then compare the measures. If the freshmen have a lower score, then one can conclude that the college effect is increasing some scores in the seniors. Another method would be conducting a longitudinal study on adolescent’s ground to college and those not going to college. Measurements are taken after and before the college. Then the posttests scores are compared. This design is more advantageous in that it makes it possible to use the same group as controls thus obtaining a correct score.  Another way would be to study the college students only. The methods include gauging the degree of involvement in the college experience and relating it to gains during college. There are studies that report whether a college has any effect, but they base their conclusion on moral judgment.

Facts presented in this article shows that there is a college effect. However, the study also raises the question of why the world is in bad shape morally if the colleges are doing well in moral development. There are four components of moral development including moral judgment, character, sensitivity, and moral motivation. Sensitivity is the process by which individuals interpret social situations and figure out the course of action. Moral judgment is the process by which an individual selects the moral course of action. Moral motivation is the process by which an individual prioritize moral values to the extent that personal values do not obstruct the moral action. Moral character is the process by which a person persists in pursuing the moral course of action. Moral behavior thus becomes a result of the inner processes of the four variables. If there is a moral deficiency in any of the components, then there can be a moral failure (Rest, James, and Darcia Narvaez 244). The author concludes that immoral behavior in college students does not mean that college does not contribute positively to building moral behavior. The moral failures must be due to other variables and not college effect. The authors suggest that a program to offer moral education could attend to all the four variables of moral development. Such programs do not exist practically, but they could heal the immoral communities and societies of the twenty-first century.

Ellison, Nicole B., Charles Steinfield, and Cliff Lampe. “The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites.” Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication 12.4 (2007): 1143-1168.

The author of this article is exploring the effects of using Facebook on social capital. The study is examining the correlation between Facebook use and maintenance of social relations. In this era of the internet, the world has become one big interconnected system. Through social media, friends can bond and stay in touch. Individuals make friends through Facebook thereby building their social capital. Social network sites give individuals a chance to express and present themselves to the world thereby making friends. Participants use Facebook to network with people they relate personally or new connections. Individuals can also join groups based on personal interests and learn each other’s interest and hobbies (Ellison, Charles, and Cliff 1143). The major rationale of the study is determining the benefits of the Facebook friends and connections. This is important in that in today’s society; the social media is the main way of interaction between young people especially college students.

Created in the year 2004, Facebook has more than twenty-one million users. It is integrated into the daily lives and practices of the users. In late 2005, Facebook capitalized on the success among college students to launch the famous high school version. Most of the studies about Facebook are concerned with privacy and security concerns. However, it is important to look at the quantity of information provided by Facebook users about themselves portraying a sense of no privacy as enacted by users. Users do not care about privacy when they post information about themselves. Popular press coverage concentrates on the negative outcomes of the users. This study was interested in situations where the intended audience is the actual audience. Social capital is the accumulated resources through the relationship between people. Social capital is linked to positive outcomes such as low crimes, improved public health, efficient markets, and a fair society. Based on measures of social capital, the norm has been on the decline in the United States. A decline in social capital leads to social disorder and reduced participation in social activities such as public activities. It also increases distrust among the people and the community at large. The internet is considered to increase and decrease social capital among individuals. By randomly selecting 800 students from Michigan State University, the researchers conducted a survey using the Zoomerang online survey-hosting website (Ellison, Charles, and Cliff 1148). Measures of Facebook usage, psychological well-being, and social capital were included in the survey.

The major finding of the study the individuals used Facebook to stay in touch with each other and to build a relationship with a foundation on some offline proximity such as in dormitories or classes. For most of the individuals, Facebook is a way of staying in tap with high-school friends and other associates. The authors concluded that the linkage between the use of Facebook and staying connected with high school friends presents a way of maintaining friendships after people move from one offline group to the other.  This might also facilitate maintaining the same when students graduate from school and move to the working community. Facebook is very significant in maintaining connections and creating social capital. However, the study was limited in that only one community was examined. The researchers concentrated with Michigan State University students who only represent the Michigan community. The use of Facebook may vary depending on cultural values and social norms. Thus, it is significant for such a study to considered several communities before making conclusions about the whole population. Besides, further research needs to be done to determine the effects of reduced social capital to individuals and community at large. Predictions have been done suggesting that deficiency in social capital can increase crime, social disorder, and lack of participation in local events but studies need to be done to solidify these assumptions

Mendoza-Denton, Rodolfo, et al. “Sensitivity to status-based rejection: implications for African American students’ college experience.” Journal of personality and social psychology 83.4 (2002): 896.

The authors are exploring the topic of rejection among the African American students based on social status. This is an important topic because the feeling of rejection among college students is detrimental to the learning process. When rejection has basis on membership of a less valued group, individuals feel anxious and perceive status-based rejection. It incorporates a doubt about acceptance by the members of a society or a community institution. Though the traditional barriers of social diversification are prohibited legally, some of the historically barred group members continue to expect some doubts in social institutions such as the police (Nora and Alberto 121). Research on relationships indicates that rejection puts pressure on the quality of well-being and relationships. The expectations of rejection by an individual from a certain social class can undermine goals harmonious and close relationships. Self-identity is a reflection of one’s quality in both as an individual and as a member of a social group (Mendoza-Denton et al. 897). The authors have a hypothesis that the expectation of any form of rejection is activated when the specific rejection is possible. Different situations activate different expectation of rejections as either an individual or a member of a society.

The rejection sensitivity model has a view that there is a processing dynamic, which accounts for cost of personal rejection. The expectations of rejection stem from a situation where rejection rather than acceptance is communicated in a social setting. Other potential causes of rejection expectations include mistreatment, discrimination, prejudice, and membership exclusion based on a social group. Once rejection becomes possible, the expectation for it becomes active. Individuals high in rejection sensitivity not only expect rejection but also get concerned about the occurrence of a negative outcome. This has long-term effects on the individual in different settings. When rejection is directed to oneself, it leads to distrust in support by others who are significant and troubled relationships. This article focuses on rejection based on race. It considers that race is a source of social stigma in the America society. The authors conducted several studies with the first one at a research university in the United States using a sample of 359 students compromising of different ethnic groups (Mendoza-Denton et al. 900). A questionnaire was administered to reveal whether the students had experienced any form of rejection.

The major findings of this study were that the African Americans experience some form of rejection not necessarily referring to ethnicity. In addition, the expectation of rejection among the African Americans is activated only when such rejection is relevant. White Americans, on the other hand, did not experience any form of rejection. The findings reveal that the expectation of rejection based on race among the African Americans is separate from rejection by important others. Individuals react to rejection based on the specific situation facing them. The social cognitive histories, however, have an effect on the type of rejection expected by individuals (Mendoza-Denton et al. 916). However, in future, it would be significant to explore whether the status-based rejection explains the outcomes of .lower status groups not only in American but also all over the world. Rejection based on several social norms and expectations is present in different communities from China to Japan and Europe.

 Work Cited

Brand, Jennie E., and Yu Xie. “Who benefits most from college? Evidence for negative selection in heterogeneous economic returns to higher education.” American Sociological Review 75.2 (2010): 273-302.

Ellison, Nicole B., Charles Steinfield, and Cliff Lampe. “The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites.” Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication 12.4 (2007): 1143-1168.

Martinez, Lisa M. “Dreams Deferred The Impact of Legal Reforms on Undocumented Latino Youth.” American behavioral scientist 58.14 (2014): 1873-1890.

Mendoza-Denton, Rodolfo, et al. “Sensitivity to status-based rejection: implications for African American students’ college experience.” Journal of personality and social psychology 83.4 (2002): 896.

Nora, Amaury, and Alberto F. Cabrera. “The role of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination on the adjustment of minority students to college.” The Journal of Higher Education (1996): 119-148.

Rest, James, and Darcia Narvaez. “The college experience and moral development.” Handbook of moral behavior and development 2 (2014): 229-245.

 
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